In March 1809 Congress passed the Non-Intercourse Act, which replaced the Embargo Acts of 1807 and 1808. The unpopular embargo had banned American merchants from almost all foreign trade. The Non-Intercourse Act reopened trade with all nations except Great Britain and France. President Thomas Jefferson signed the legislation three days before he left office. During the Napoleonic Wars, Britain and France had violated American shipping even though the United States declared itself neutral in the conflict. The Embargo Acts had proven ineffective in hurting Britain or France or preventing them from seizing American ships. Instead, the embargo hurt American merchants, who lost millions of dollars in trade. In May 1809 President James Madison briefly legalized trade with Great Britain, but replaced the embargo in August 1809. The Non-Intercourse Act proved as unsuccessful as the Embargo Acts. In May 1810 Congress removed restrictions on foreign commerce but retained the right to renew the ban if American neutrality was again violated. The United States failed to find a way to protect its neutral shipping rights and went to war with Britain in 1812.
